Д. С. Ведунова "Explore It. Australia"

Explore It. Australia
Д. С. Ведунова

Рќ. Рђ. РћРІСЃСЏРЅРЅРёРєРѕРІР°

Данное пособие является продолжением серии Explore It. В нём рассказывается о жизни в Австралии, устройстве этого государства. Пособие предназначено для учащихся общеобразовательных учебных заведений.

Explore It. Australia

Рќ.В Рђ. РћРІСЃСЏРЅРЅРёРєРѕРІР°

Д. С. Ведунова

© Н. А. Овсянникова, 2020

© Д. С. Ведунова, 2020

ISBNВ 978-5-0051-4256-6

Created with Ridero smart publishing system

Geographical position and peculiarities ofВ the country

Australia ([ə'streɪljə], from Latin austrālis – “southern”), the official form is the Australian Union, or Commonwealth of Australia is a state in the Southern Hemisphere, occupying the continent of the same name, the island of Tasmania and several other islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. It is the sixth-largest country in the world. East Timor, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea are located to the north of the Commonwealth of Australia, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, and the Solomon Islands to the northeast, and New Zealand to the southeast.

The mainland ofВ the Commonwealth ofВ Australia is separated from the main island ofВ Papua New Guinea byВ the Torres Strait with aВ minimum width ofВ about 150В km, and the distance from the Australian island ofВ Boigu toВ Papua New Guinea is about 5В kilometers. The population as ofВ 31.12.2018В was estimated at 25,180,200. The majority ofВ population lives inВ cities on the east coast.

Australia is one of the developed countries, being the thirteenth largest economy in the world, and has the sixth largest GDP per capita in the world. Australia’s military spending is the twelfth largest in the world. With the second highest human development index, Australia ranks high in many areas, such as quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights. Australia is a member of the G20, WTO, APEC, UN as well as of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Pacific Islands Forum.

Geographical position

The Commonwealth of Australia is a state in the Southern Hemisphere with an area of 7,692,024 km². Australia is the sixth largest state in the world after Russia, Canada, China, the USA and Brazil, occupying about 5% of the Earth’s land surface. It includes: mainland Australia (including the island of Tasmania) with an area of 7 659 861 km² and other offshore islands with an area of 32 163 km². Australia controls several outer territories: the Cocos (Keeling) Islands with an area of 14 km², Christmas Island with an area of 135 km², Ashmore and Cartier Islands with an area of 199 km², the Coral Sea Islands with an area of 7 km² (water area about 780 thousand km²), Heard Island and the McDonald Islands with an area of 372 km² (part of the Australian Antarctic Territory), Norfolk Island with an area of 35 km² and the Australian Antarctic Territory with an area of 5 896 000 km² (Australia’s sovereignty over this territory is not recognized by most countries in the world). The total area of all external territories is 5 896 762 km² (without the Antarctic territory – 762 km²).

The northern and eastern coasts of Australia are washed by the seas of the Pacific Ocean: Arafur, Coral, Tasman, Indian Ocean – Timor; western and southern – Indian Ocean. The large islands of New Guinea and Tasmania are located near Australia. The Great Barrier Reef, the world’s largest coral reef, stretches for more than 2000 kilometers along the north-eastern coast of Australia.

Australia stretches from west to east for about4,000 kilometers, and from north to south for almost 3,860 kilometers. The extreme points of the mainland are: in the north – Cape York (10° S), in the south – Cape South East Cape (43° S), in the west – Cape Steep Point (114° E), in the east – Cape Byron (154° E).

The length of Australia’s coastline is 59,736 km (of which the mainland is 35,877 km, the island is 23,859 km), and the area of the exclusive economic zone is 8,148,250 km².

Climate

Australia’s climate is heavily influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean dipole and El Niño, which create periodic droughts and seasonal tropical low pressures that lead to cyclones in northern Australia. These factors cause a marked change in rainfall from year to year. Most of the country’s north has a tropical climate with predominantly summer rainfall. Nearly three quarters of Australia are deserts and semi-deserts.

InВ the southwestern part ofВ the country, the climate is Mediterranean. Most ofВ the southeast ofВ the country (including Tasmania) has aВ temperate climate. The aridity ofВ the region is influenced byВ the cold West Australian Current, which does not provide energy for the formation ofВ aВ cyclone. Something similar is happening inВ the west ofВ South America, but everything changes there with the advent ofВ El NiГ±o.

Geological structure

The country’s territory is based on the ancient Australian Platform, which is part of the Gondwana continent in the southern hemisphere of the Earth.

Relief

Most of the country’s territory is occupied by vast deserts and low-lying areas. The most famous deserts are the Great Sandy Desert, the Great Victoria Desert. To the east of the Victoria Desert lies the Great Artesian Basin semi-desert. In the east of the mainland, there are severely destroyed, low mountains of the Hercynian folding – the Great Dividing Range with a maximum height in the south (Mount Kostsyushko, 2228 m; Townsend, 2209 m). Faults and river valleys dissect mountains into separate massifs.

The tops ofВ the mountains are domed. The eastern slopes ofВ the mountains drop abruptly toВ the sea, the western ones are gentler. Australia is the only mainland without active volcanoes and modern glaciation.

The lowest point in Australia is Lake Eyre (—15 m), which covers an area of about 15,000 km².

Mount Kostsyushko is the highest point ofВ the Australian continent. The highest point ofВ the country (Mawson Peak volcano) is located on the subantarctic island ofВ Heard.

Natural resources

The main natural wealth of the country is mineral resources. Australia’s natural resource potential is 20 times higher than the world average. The country ranks 2nd in the world in terms of bauxite reserves (1/3 of the world’s reserves and 40% of production), zirconium, 1st in the world in uranium reserves (1/3 of the world’s) and 3rd place for its production: 8022 tons in 2009. The country ranks 6th in the world in terms of coal reserves. It has significant reserves of manganese, gold and diamonds. In the south of the country (Brownlow field), as well as off the north-eastern and north-western coasts in the shelf zone, there are minor deposits of oil and natural gas.

Nature

Although most of the continent is semi-desert and desert, Australia has a variety of landscapes, from similar alpine meadows to tropical jungles. Due to the continent’s significant age (as well as low soil fertility), a wide variety of weather conditions and long-term geographic isolation, Australia’s biota is rich and unique. The flora and fauna of Australia in total include about 12 thousand species, of which about 9 thousand are endemics. Among flowering plants 85% are endemic, among mammals – 84%, birds – 45%, coastal fish – 89%. Many of Australia’s ecological regions and their flora and fauna are threatened by human activities and introduced plant and animal species.

History ofВ Australia

Australia was inhabited about 50,000В years ago, and the remains ofВ its indigenous population are Australian Aborigines. Documented History ofВ Australia begins with its discovery byВ Europeans inВ the early 16th century.

The first documented landing of a European on the shores of Australia took place in 1606 – it was the Dutchman Willem Janszon. In addition to him, during the 17th century, another 29 Dutch sailors explored the western and southern coasts of the continent, giving it the name “New Holland”.

The first fleet ofВ British ships landed inВ Botany Bay inВ January 1788В and established aВ prison colony there. InВ the century that followed, the British established other colonies on the continent, and European explorers penetrated deep into Australia. During this period, the Australian aborigines were seriously weakened byВ imported diseases and their numbers declined, including during conflicts with the colonists.

ByВ the middle ofВ the 19th century, democratic parliaments were formed inВ all six British colonies. InВ 1901, aВ referendum was held inВ which the colonies spoke inВ favour ofВ the formation ofВ aВ federation. From this moment the history ofВ modern Australia began. Australia fought alongside Britain inВ both World Wars and has become aВ long-term ally ofВ the United States since the threat ofВ an invasion byВ the Japanese Empire inВ World War II. Trade ties with Asia were strengthened, and the post-war immigration program attracted over 6.5В million migrants from all continents. The post-war influx ofВ migrants from more than 200В countries allowed the population toВ grow toВ 23В million people byВ 2014, and the national economy toВ become the 12th largest inВ the world.

Australia was presumably inhabited 40 to 60 thousand years ago. Humans arrived in Australia by sea at a time when New Guinea and Tasmania were part of the continent, making them the earliest maritime travellers in the world. The population of the continent by people began 42—48 thousand years ago.

The oldest human remains on the continent, the so-called Mungo man, are about 40В thousand years old. These remains are one ofВ the oldest examples ofВ cremation found on Earth, indicating the early existence ofВ religious rituals among Australian aborigines. The first inhabitants ofВ Australia were extremely massive and very large people.

The modern anthropological appearance ofВ the Australian aborigines acquired approx. 4В thousand yearsВ ago.

Existing estimates ofВ the size ofВ the indigenous population ofВ Australia before colonization, at the end ofВ the 18th century, vary inВ the range between 315В and 750В thousand people. This population was divided into approximately 250В peoples, many ofВ whom were inВ alliances with each other. Each nation spoke its own language, and some even several languages, so that there were more than 250В Australian Aboriginal languages. About two hundred ofВ these languages have now become extinct.

Everyday life and material culture ofВ different peoples differed significantly. The highest population density was inВ the south and east ofВ Australia, inВ particular inВ the Murray River Valley.

The first reliable report on the observation of the Australian territory by Europeans dates back to 1606, when the expedition of the Dutchman Willem Janson on the ship “Duifken” explored the Gulf of Carpentaria and landed on the Cape York Peninsula. In 1616, another Dutchman, Derk Hartog, landed at Shark Bay in Western Australia. The coast of Australia was called New Holland and declared the possession of the Netherlands, but the Dutch never mastered it. However, back in 1606, the Spanish expedition of Pedro Fernandez Quiros landed on the New Hebrides and, believing that this is the southern continent, called it the Southern Land of the Holy Spirit. Later that year, Kyros’s deputy, Luis Vaez de Torres, sailed through the Torres Strait and may have seen the northern coast of Australia.

Abel Janszon Tasman, a Dutch navigator, explorer and merchant, received world recognition for his sea voyages in 1642—1644. The first among the famous European explorers reached the shores of New Zealand, Tonga and Fiji. He also discovered Van Diemen’s Land (later named after him Tasmania, the name of the navigator is also the Tasman Sea). The data collected during his expeditions helped prove the fact that Australia is a separate continent. Thanks to him, the west coast of Australia was displayed on the maps. By the early 18th century, the west coast of Australia had been explored and mapped by Dutch, English and French sailors. No attempts were made to populate the territory.

With the exception of Dutch exploration on the west coast, Australia remained unexplored until the maiden voyage of James Cook. In 1769, Lieutenant James Cook, in command of the HMS Endeavor, travelled to Tahiti to see the transit of Venus across the solar disk. Cook also carried out secret Admiralty instructions to search for the Southern Continent. On April 19, 1770, the crew of the ship Endeavor sighted the east coast of Australia, and ten days later landed at Botany Bay. Cook explored the east coast, and then, together with the ship’s naturalist Joseph Banks, reported a favourable situation for the establishment of a colony in Botany Bay. In 1770, the British expedition of James Cook aboard the ship Endeavor explored and mapped the east coast of Australia, landing for the first time on April 29 at Botany Bay.

British colonization

On January 26, 1788, Captain Arthur Phillip founded the settlement of Sydney Cove, which later became the city of Sydney. This event marked the history of the British colony of New South Wales, and Phillip’s Landing Day is celebrated in Australia as a national holiday, Australia Day. The colony included not only Australia but also New Zealand. The settlement of Van Diemen Land, now known as Tasmania, began in 1803; in 1825 it became a separate colony.

Great Britain formally declared its claims toВ the western part ofВ Australia inВ 1829. New South Wales was divided and new colonies created: South Australia inВ 1836, New Zealand inВ 1840, Victoria inВ 1851, Queensland inВ 1859. InВ 1863, the Northern Territory, previously part ofВ the Province ofВ South Australia, was founded.

InВ 1829, the Swan River Colony was founded, which became the nucleus ofВ the future state ofВ Western Australia. Western Australia was founded as aВ free colony, but then, due toВ severe labour shortages, also began toВ accept convicts. The dispatch ofВ convicts toВ Australia began toВ decline inВ 1840В and ceased completely byВ 1868.

Colonization was accompanied byВ the establishment and expansion ofВ settlements throughout the continent. So, at this time, Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane were founded. Large areas were cleared ofВ forest and shrubbery and were used for agricultural purposes. This had aВ serious impact on the lifestyle ofВ the Australian aborigines and forced them toВ retreat from the coasts. The number ofВ aborigines has significantly decreased due toВ the introduced diseases toВ which they did not have immunity. InВ the mid-1800s, the remaining indigenous population was displaced, partly voluntarily, partly forcibly, on missions and reservations.

Self-government and the discovery ofВ gold

Gold Rush began inВ Australia inВ the 1850s. InВ 1854, the Eureka Uprising took place inВ the gold mines, which became the expression ofВ the national idea. The flag used byВ the rebels was considered aВ candidate for the national flag ofВ Australia. The gold rush caused an influx ofВ immigrants toВ Australia from the UK, Ireland, other European countries, North America and China.

InВ 1855В New South Wales became the first Australian colony toВ gain self-government. It remained part ofВ the British Empire, but the government controlled most ofВ the internal affairs. InВ 1856, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia received self-government, Queensland inВ 1859В (since its foundation), and Western Australia inВ 1890. Foreign policy, defence and foreign trade remained inВ charge ofВ the British government.

The boom brought on byВ the discovery ofВ gold was followed byВ prosperous decades, but inВ the 1890s the Australian economy experienced aВ recession. Against this background, the growth ofВ the labour movement was observed, and inВ 1899, inВ Queensland, local Labourites became the first Social Democratic party inВ the world toВ form aВ local government (soon, inВ 1904, the Australian Labor Party became the first Labor Party toВ come toВ power at the national level).

Federation

On January 1, 1901, after ten years ofВ preparation, the Australian colonies united toВ form the Commonwealth ofВ Australia, the dominion ofВ the British Empire.

InВ 1911, the Federal Capital Territory (Australian Capital Territory since 1938) was cut off from New South Wales and construction began on the future new capital, Canberra. From 1901В toВ 1927, Melbourne was the capital ofВ the Union. InВ the same year 1911, the Northern Territory was transferred from the control ofВ the state ofВ South Australia toВ federal administration. (Between 1927В and 1931, it was divided into the territories ofВ Northern and Central Australia). InВ addition, between the world wars, Australia received from Great Britain some territories that were previously directly subordinate toВ London: Norfolk Island (1914), Ashmore and Cartier Islands (1931) and claims toВ the Australian Antarctic Territory (1933).

Australia, due toВ its strong dependence on exports (the main export products were grain and wool), was significantly affected byВ the global economic crisis. InВ 1932, the unemployment rate reached aВ record high ofВ 29%.

Under the 1931В Westminster Statute, which Australia only ratified inВ 1942, it became de facto independent from Great Britain. The British king remained the head ofВ state.

After World War II, the Australian government began aВ massive program toВ welcome immigrants from Europe. It was believed that the country narrowly escaped the Japanese invasion, and inВ order toВ avoid similar problems inВ the future, measures should be taken toВ ensure that its population was increased. InВ addition toВ traditional migrants from the British Isles, people from Central and Southern Europe moved toВ Australia inВ large numbers for the first time inВ its history. AВ thriving economy that has attracted migrants from war-torn Europe has allowed the government toВ open numerous programs toВ employ newcomers. Between 1948В and 1975, two million immigrants arrived inВ Australia.

In 1986, with the passage of the 1986 Australian Act, all constitutional ties between Australia and Great Britain ended, although the Queen of Great Britain still formally remains the head of state of Australia. In 1999, a referendum was held on the establishment of a republic, but this proposal was rejected by a small majority (55%) of the vote. Since the election of Prime Minister Gough Whitlam in 1972, the main thrust of Australia’s modern foreign policy has been to establish and develop ties with its Asia-Pacific neighbours, while maintaining close ties with Australia’s traditional allies and trading partners.

Government and politics

The Government ofВ Australia is aВ system ofВ institutions and organizations defined byВ the constitution and designed toВ provide governance ofВ the political, economic, and cultural life ofВ Australia. The Australian Government is based on two basic principles: the principle ofВ federalism and the principle ofВ separation ofВ powers. The constitution divides the Australian government into three branches: legislative, executive, and legal.

The Constitution of Australia defines the federal legislature of the country – the Federal Parliament or the Federal Parliament. Parliament includes the Monarch of Australia, the Senate and the House of Representatives. According to the constitution, the federal government is given legislative rights at the state level, as well as the rights and responsibilities to enforce federal law. All other duties and rights remain with the governments of the six colonies that entered the federation at the time of its formation in 1901. According to the constitution, these colonies became the states of the Commonwealth of Australia. Each state has its own constitution and parliament, so Australia has seven independent parliaments, none of which can interfere in the affairs of the other. The Australian Supreme Court, as the legal branch of government, is charged with resolving disputes arising between the federation and the states, as well as between individual states.

The Federal Parliament has the right to make proposals for constitutional amendments. In order for these changes to acquire the force of law, it is necessary to pass them through a national referendum, at which they must receive a “double majority”:

– majority of votes, and

– majority of votes in most states.

The country’s constitution allows states to delegate some of their powers to the federal government. This can be achieved by amending the constitution through a referendum. The most common way of transferring authority is through a law that approves the transfer, and that law must be approved by all state governments involved in this transfer of authority. The transfer of powers, formalized in this way, can have a certain period of validity, after which the powers of the parties return to their previous state.

InВ addition toВ the states, Australia has aВ number ofВ territories, three ofВ which, the Australian Capital Territory, the Northern Territory and Norfolk Island, have self-government rights. These Territories have statutory rights granted toВ them byВ the federal government, and the Australian Parliament reserves the right toВ revoke these rights and repeal bills passed byВ the Territories as necessary. InВ addition, Australian citizens residing inВ the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory have their representation inВ the Australian Parliament, while Norfolk Island residents doВ not.

The rest of Australia’s territories, which have a permanent population, do not have the right to self-government, these territories use federal laws, although there are local governments on Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands.

The principles of federal structure and the structure of the Australian parliament were the subject of much debate at the time of writing the country’s constitution. The House of Representatives is elected on the basis that the states that make up the Australian Federation have different populations. New South Wales, for example, has 50 seats in the lower house of parliament, while Tasmania has only 5. In contrast to the lower house, the Senate is elected by equal representation from all states, all of which are represented in the upper house by 12 senators. Such a system was chosen in order to prevent the two most populous states of the country, New South Wales and Victoria, from any advantage over other members of the federation due to the fact that if the lower house passes any law that can be regarded as an advantage for the two states, the upper house could block it by most of the smaller states.

The third tier ofВ government, after the Australian federal government, state and territory governments, is the local government inВ the form ofВ city and suburban councils. These institutions are responsible for issues such as maintaining local roads, libraries, garbage collection, animal registration, etc. Council members are elected inВ local elections and usually perform their duties inВ combination.

According to the Australian Constitution, the country is a federal state with a constitutional monarchical form of government. Politics in the country is carried out within the framework of parliamentary democracy. The Monarch of Great Britain is the monarch of Australia, and his authority in the country is represented by the Governor General. The power of the monarch in the territory of individual states and territories that make up the country is represented by governors and administrators. However, the monarchy in Australia is primarily of ceremonial and historical significance. At its core, Australia’s political system is a parliamentary democracy. The people of the country elect the legislatures of each territory and state that make up the federation, as well as the bicameral Australian federal parliament, which is a hybrid of the UK parliament, operating on the basis of the Westminster tradition, as well as elements of the unique Australian federal practice.

Legislature

The Australian Parliament, also called the Commonwealth Parliament or the Federal Parliament, is the highest legislative body inВ Australia. It is bicameral, influenced byВ both the Westminster system and the federalism ofВ the United States. According toВ article 1В ofВ the Australian Constitution, Parliament consists ofВ three parts: The Monarch, the Senate and the House ofВ Representatives. The Australian Parliament is the sixth oldest continuously democratic legislature inВ the world.

The House ofВ Representatives has 150В members, each ofВ whom is elected for flexible terms ofВ office not exceeding three years, and represents one constituency, usually called the electorate or seat. Voting within each electorate takes place according toВ the rating system ofВ preferential voting, which first appeared inВ Australia. The party or coalition ofВ parties that gains the confidence ofВ the majority ofВ the House ofВ Representatives forms the government.