The French Transalpine Gaul was called Gaul Chiomata, because they wore hair and lark wings over their helmets, while the Italian Gaul Cispadana, practically the entire Po Valley, was called Gaul Togata because they dressed in a similar way to the Romans and, in fact, they had a confederation with Rome, with whom they shared many customs and traditions.
When Caesar returned to Italy from French Transalpine Gaul he brought with him more legions than he had left with and amassed them in Romagna near the border of the Rubicon, which then divided the Italian Gaul Togata with the republic of Rome.
This was because, as he proceeded in his conquests, he had enlisted and formed several legions, called Gallic legions.
These Gallic legions were formed not only by fighters but also by many colonists, women and children followers, to whom Caesar had promised honors and land on Italian soil if they were victorious. Now that he had won, he had brought them to Italy with him and they were amassed near the Rubicon.
In view of the threat, the Rubicon was hastily reinforced by Pompey's troops to try to block Caesar in some way, after having amassed his legions near the Rubicon had in front of him a practically open pathway to Rome.
About thirty years earlier, that province and those lands had been ruined and depopulated by a violent civil war between Cesena, Forlì and Faenza, which had been won by the optimates under Sulla over the populares under Caius Marius, who was Julius Caesar's uncle. Then, Caesar, returning from the French Gauls, was resettling and reconquering this land with populations and legions that were following him from Gaul and Provence.20
Many legionaries and settlers were offered this land beside this border as a reward, which they accepted, laid down their arms and colonized that place, which was called Roman-dia or Roman-via, which meant Roman crossing or road to Rome.
And, still today, there is a road that crosses it, which is called Via Romea, that is, Road to Rome and, that land, Romagna.
But Caesar suggested that his best Gallic legionaries continued fighting and, as a reward, he proposed to give them Rome itself in exchange, if they followed and supported him in his march to conquer Rome.
However, Roman legionaries and officers were also among Caesar's soldiers. Much discord and many doubts soon arose among them regarding the legitimacy and appropriateness of such an act.
Several Roman legionaries considered such a proposal sacrilegious and that they should remain loyal to Rome forever, while those in favor of the populares21 and of Caesar's uncle, Gaius Marius, who had been defeated years before by Sulla, wanted nothing more than to redeem themselves and take revenge on Rome and its optimates.22
Thus they convinced many Gallic legionaries to consider it an immense opportunity to redeem themselves and become not only Roman citizens but also public officials, if they crossed the Rubicon and conquered Rome.
Moreover, then as now, Latin dialects spoken in the north were different to those spoken in central and southern Italy.
So, if anyone thinks the disagreements between northern Italy and Rome are the result of something that happened recently, they should look a little further into the past, because there were already various issues at the time of Caesar. Such as: whether it would be convenient for the Gauls in the Po valley to be considered citizens of Rome or not. Even then there were arguments between populations and tribes who wanted to continue to be autonomous, federated or federalist if you prefer, while others wished to become citizens of Rome instead, with all the advantages and disadvantages this would involve.
The borders between the north and Rome existed already and were first traced out in the minds of people and their traditions and only then drawn on the ground.
And Caesar was the first to grant Roman citizenship to the populations of the Italian Gauls. This was shortly after they had crossed the Rubicon and won the civil war against Pompey.
Thus, Caesar amassed and deployed his troops before the Rubicon near Cesena and began to distribute much land as prizes and spoils of war, especially to his Gallic legions that had followed him on his return to Italy.
The Gallic legions were mostly composed of Provençals from southern France and Aquitaine, from places then named Arles, Narbo Martius, Forum Julii, Forum Novempopuli, Forum Gallorum, Libertinorum and, in part, they recreated similar places in Romagna.
Crossing Liguria and the Apennine pass between Parma and La Spezia23 they came to Emilia, joined up with a few Gallic legions of the Po Valley, who were already stationed in Emilia, and began to descend towards the Roman-via, until they massed threateningly in front of the Roman troops under Pompey near the border on the Rubicon.
Thus the Gallic legions of Caesar began to resettle and reorganize that land which, one hundred and sixty years earlier, had been called Flaminia in honor of a consul named Flaminius whose name, among others, meant descendant of the Flamini, the high priests of ancient Rome. Flaminius had hastily built and fortified a defensive line, named Puniceus Rubicon, to prevent the Punic Hannibal from descending towards Rome, as we have read in a previous chapter.
After the violent defeat, which ended with the personal sacrifice of the consul Flaminius himself,24 that land was called Roman-dia and Roman-via at the time because25 they lead to Rome.
But Caesar requested and promised his most loyal legionaries much more than the land of Romagna, namely Rome and the whole of Italy, if they decided to follow him and conquer the land that could be glimpsed and seen in the Marche immediately after Rimini.
So, he gathered together the most aggressive troops who wanted to continue fighting near the Rubicon and prepared to lead them to Rome.
What was most tempting to many, but feared by others, which caused a few to defect from Caesar's ranks, was they perceived this act to be a betrayal of their mission.
One in particular was the brave general Titus Labienus,26 who deserted Caesar and sided with Pompey Magnus, Caesar's political and military rival, who was deployed beyond the Rubicon. He took with him about 3,700 men on horseback and legionaries.
But there were also a few Gallic peoples who did not want to follow Caesar and were content to settle forever in the land of Romagna that he had promised them, even if, Caesar asked them to defend his rear guard from Pompey's troops who could descend from Spain towards Italy.
Thus a few Gallic legions began to resettle the current Romagna, depopulated by the previous civil revolt of Marius and Sulla.
But let's return to Caesar's journey towards Cesena.
Caesar's arrival in Cesena (Curve Caes Arena)
Caesar and the commander Hortensius, after having crossed the Via Decimana, came to Curva Caes Arena,27 where many men who had always been loyal to the populares28 under his Uncle Gaius Marius were awaiting him.
Tens of years earlier in Romagna, the populares, headed by Caesar's uncle, Gaius Marius, were grievously defeated militarily by the optimates under Sulla between Forlì and Faenza that had swept the countryside clean of the population.
Caesar was rebuilding and reorganizing many things.
There in that land he had promised and given away much land and many public offices to his veterans and he was embellishing and Romanizing much of Romagna with taxes on land and products.
Government buildings, theatres, gladiator barracks, buildings and streets, grew to guarantee political loyalty, military stability and logistics in the area.
Cesena was once named Curva Caes Arena, which meant Caesar's circular arena and that name is still present on an ancient Roman map.29
The Curva Caes Arena was a small copy of the Circolo Massimo (Great Circle) for horse races that Caesar had almost finished building but which, because of his death a few years later, was completed by his nephew the emperor Augustus.
After his arrival in Cesena, Caesar gathered his best officers, Labienius, Quintus Hortensius, Curio, Mark Anthony, Cassius and Asinius Pollio, to take stock of Pompey's military position beyond the Rubicon.
"Greetings to you, Caesar. To celebrate your arrival we have organized equestrian demonstrations in your arena, which has almost been completed," said Curio.30
"Thank you, you know I enjoy horse races, but first tell me about Pompey's strategic position," replied Caesar.
"Pompey suspects you want to attack Rome, he left the Rubicon border and advanced with two legions until he took possession of the Prissatellum 31 right in front of the Caes solum32 and the land you gave to the Gauls. At this time they are in opposition to our troops a few miles from us," replied Mark Anthony.
"Yes, I heard about from the relays. Pompey had done more or less, what Flaminius did when he was waiting for Hannibal's descent," answered Caesar smiling.
"Exactly, my Caesar; he only has two legions and he has placed them in a defensive formation on the Rubicon," said Mark Anthony.
"And what else is he doing to defend himself?" added Caesar.
"Pompey is threatening curses and loss of Roman citizenship, through some high priests, against any of us who dare to cross the Rubicon, but he is doing this only to buy time and install a third legion to reinforce the rear and better cover the defensive line," replied Mark Anthony.
"Mortatibus sui!"33 shouted Caesar.
"Is he intending to use the fear of the Gods and the loyalty of our legionaries to Rome as a weapon to deter us?"
"So it seems Caesar. And he announced that he would be sending the Flamini and Vaticani34 here to Caes Arena to meet you. We'll see if they've the courage to cross the Rubicon and come and talk to you," replied Mark Anthony.
"Without a doubt they'll come. As representatives of the Gods of Rome they have access to any place occupied by Roman legions and legionaries," replied Labienus, Caesar's best Roman general.
"And even if they do come, what do you think they'll do?" asked Caesar.
"Usually, they do two things. Negotiate peace on behalf of the senate to dissuade anyone from attacking Rome, or make curses to the gods and our warrior ancestors against us," explained Labienus.
"Me and my ancestors have already cursed them and declared war on them long before they did," replied Caesar, no longer able to keep calm.
"Have you requested the Druid35 priests of our Gallic legions to make curses and perform mysterious sacrifices to try to protect us?" asked Labienus.
"I have done everything necessary to overcome and defeat them, General Labienus, which may include having legionaries as good as you are and many other things," replied Caesar.
"It is evil and forbidden to use priests to torment Roman citizens or friends with divine intervention. Only the enemies of Rome can be killed legitimately by the priests and gods of Hades, without incurring the revenge of the Roman gods," replied Labienus who, like many Roman legionaries, was respectful of the precepts of the religion of Rome.
"This time you are wrong General Labienus. I was also Pontefix Massimum36 and I know very well what our priests are secretly doing not far from here, inside Mons Jovis37 just beyond the Rubicon. I can tell you that even there they order the killing of enemies of the state, first with divine rituals, then if this is not enough, with much more," replied Caesar.
"And why then, instead of setting ourselves against the curses of our priests and Ancestors, don't we seek to make a peace agreement with them?" said General Labienus who had no desire to go to war against Rome.
"Because they have become enemies of the state, because of the crimes committed against the citizens and our popular representatives and they will have neither the Gods nor our Ancestors on their side. But I don't intend to defeat them with magical rituals," concluded Caesar.
"Instead it seems that that is what they intend to do, Caesar," replied Curio.
Explain this better."
"From what I have heard, they intend to draw another red line on the second line of defense and make it sacred and impassable," added Curio.
"They want to draw another red line? The one on the Rubicon is no longer enough for them..." Caesar burst out laughing, then added, "... and where would they like to draw this other red line?"
"Right behind the front line of the Prissatellum."
"I understand. So in case that fails, it will be enough for them to retreat behind that line, and they think no armed Roman soldier would dare cross it. But this also means they don't have many legionaries lined up on the Rubicon and they are trying to stop us using fear of the Gods."
Then he added, "Order the annihilation of our legionnaires fears immediately, using counter sacrifices performed by the Druids and Celtic priests of our Gallic legions," ordered Caesar.
"This may work with the Gallic legionaries, since they have more belief in their Druids than in the Gods of Rome, but our Roman legionaries believe in the Flamini and we, as you know, have no Flamini priests following us," replied Curio.
"I know, the Flamini Priests are in the service of the Senate and cannot put themselves in the service of a legion without authorization from Rome. However, I intend to ensure that our legionaries are no longer afraid of subgestitis et superstitis38 inculcated by the enemies," replied Caesar.
Curio said to Caesar, "But there could also be another problem besides that of the Flamini."
"Explain!"
"They also intend to influence our Gallic legions on the front line of the prissatellum."
"In what way?"
"There is a very powerful Gorgon Witch39 recognized by the common people who lives near the sources of the Urgon40 on the mountains above us, who Pompey's men intend to use against the beliefs and fears of our Gallic legionaries," replied Curio, for a moment freezing the attention of all present.
"Mortatibus sibi!41 Explain this last thing to me right away," exclaimed Caesar.
The Urgon witch
There is the source of a river on the Romagna Apennines, which is still called Urgon today.
Many believe that the Rubicon originates there, since in the Romagna dialect that word could mean Rubicon, but to tell the truth this is not certain since, in the Romagna dialect, it should be Rubgon or at least Urbgon as well, if you use the Romagna pronunciation as it is fairly closed.
Instead, no one has ever noticed that the word Urgon in ancient Etruscan meant Gorgon, which is a kind of horrible and terrifying witch similar to the legendary Medusa and that where the Urgon rose, there was a place that today is still called Strigara.42
Also, a little way after these springs, there is another place that many still consider mysterious, named Gorgoscuro.43
But let's return to Curio as he begins to explain the witch of Urgon to everyone.
"This witch lives and casts spells in the mountains near the headwaters of the river."
"She is also said to have access to the underworld, to be able to see the past, present and future, and to resurrect the bodies of the dead, forcing souls to re-enter to create spells and magical hexes."
"And so? Even if it were true, she is not a Goddess, but only an intermedium44 between people, the underworld and the Gods. What could she possibly do against us?" replied the commander Mark Anthony.
"Even the Flamini priests are not divinities but only intermediaries between people and the Gods of Rome," answered Curio.
"That's not true, this is blasphemy. The Flamini and our other Roman priests speak with the mouths of the Gods of Rome and are their vicars on earth," replied General Labienus.
"For this reason, it is said that even the Witches speak with the mouth of the underworld and the afterlife," Curio replied.
"Yes, but they are inferior to the Flamini. Flaminis super stitiius striges, sed sub stantias Deis,"45 replied Labienus who fervently observed the Roman religion of the time.
"That's not the point. They are trying to influence us so we won't fight. We've seen many similar things used against us during the Gaul campaigns and the Roman legionaries have little fear of barbarian deities, but the Gallic might be held back and frightened by these things. Tell us, Curio, what else do you know about this Gorgon witch," interrupted Caesar to stop the discussion.
"Just before the springs, there is an embankment where an artificial lake has formed, used to regulate the flow of the waters from the Prissatellum River, which separates us from Pompey's legions."
"Informants have also told me they intend to use the Gorgon to curse that water and release it into the river as soon as they see we are preparing to attack them."
"Of course they'll spread the story that anyone who crosses that water will soon die so as to try to stop us from crossing the river."
"Then they will fill the banks of the prissatellum with Gorgon heads and masks tied to poles set into the ground as a limit and border to bring bad luck to those who cross. In this way our legionaries will be affected and filled with fear of crossing that river,"46 Curio ended his explanation.
"I'm a little superstitious myself, but if that's the only problem, let's leave all the countermeasures and protections to a couple of Druids in our Gallic legions. Some of them are very good," replied a Gaul commander who was also present.
"What could a Druid do to protect our troops?" asked Caesar quickly.
"Druids don't talk too much about what they can do, but they can free us from spells and curses, woods and places in the forests, leaving you fairies and goblins to guard in their place, they can heal all evil and witches' curses with herbs, cause springs and rivers to become miraculous and magical, they can cast abominations and curses on their enemies that are so powerful that they can paralyze anyone."
"But they refuse to curse the gods of the enemies directly, only to defeat them in battle. Druids curse places and people but not Gods," replied the commander of the Gauls with conviction, by way of explanation.
"How can you be so certain about all this?" asked Hortensius.
"A Druid accompanied me at night under an oak tree in a northern forest and showed me and others many things, also what I've just told you."
"And couldn't it have been a trick or an illusion of the mind?"
"I don't think so, but even if it were, Gallic soldiers believe the Druids. And that makes the difference," replied the commander of the Gauls.
"Well, then the Druids could be used to secure the banks and woods on the border against the witch and to protect the Gauls from curses on whoever crosses the border," explained the commander Hortensius.
"I agree with you Hortensius," Caesar intervened.
"Pompey, does not have enough strength, and is trying to stop us by instilling fear. In the morning try and find out what they intend to do on the river and arrange for the Druids to be ready to protect those places and our men," Caesar ordered.
"Caesar it shall be done," replied Hortensius.
"Now, enough about Gods and witches. Let's move on to the military strength in the field. Show me our lines and those of Pompey again," said Caesar, to try to resist, without letting him see, the slight fear he felt about crossing the Rubicon.
The disposition of Caesar and Pompey's troops
Mark Anthony put his hand on a map that summarized the military situation of the two sides and, after having spread it out in front of everyone, began to explain.
"To summaries, Pompey's first line is here in front of us outside on the river Prissatellum. And immediately behind that there is a new line where the Flamini, as we have seen, intend to draw a new red line47 in addition to the one that already exists on the Rubicon. We are lined up in front of them here, between Donegallia and Caes solum48 that bound your territories. You understand, Caesar?"
"Certainly, continue."
The second line is currently poorly guarded and is a few miles further on towards Arminium,49 where the road splits in two near ad confluentes, before entering the right gate of the Rubicon."
"Why is the road split in two?" asked Labienus.
"Because the Rubicon palisade has two access gates: One entrance and one exit, General Labienus," replied Caesar, who knew what the Rubicon was like, as opposed to Mark Anthony.
Then he added: "Continue your explanation Mark Anthony."
" And finally the third and last line of the Rubicon itself, still a little to the south towards Ariminium, constructed directly on the river Pluso"50 said Mark Anthony showing Caesar the location that was close to Rimini on the map, where the Rubicon palisade was drawn in red.
"Of course," replied Caesar. Then clarified, "In my opinion, the first and second lines can be attacked with few problems but, for the sacred border of the Rubicon, I have a plan in mind to bypass it without violating the will of the Gods."
"How?" asked Mark Anthony.
"This is certainly not the time to tell you but when the time is right you will all be informed."
"However what, for now, have we arranged and deployed in terms of troops and legions against Pompey's lines?" asked Caesar.
"We have the Roman legions X and XIII encamped in the hinterland and here we have posted and deployed the Gallic legions II and III along the Caes solum and Donegallia51 with the promise that this land will become theirs forever, if they know how to defeat Pompey."
"Very well, I promised them that land as a reward and compensation if they followed me here. Are they already settling there now?" asked Caesar.
"Yes Caesar, they have gladly taken possession of it and lined up in front of Pompey's troops. They will defend that land well," replied Mark Anthony.
"Maybe it's not enough that they defend it; tell them I intend to ask them if they are also willing to attack and march on Rome. And in exchange I will promise them land and responsibilities on Italian soil and not only here in Romandia," replied Caesar.
"They know that already and many are ready to follow you, as long as you leave the land to their veterans and the land given to the Gauls to their relatives who are following," answered Asinius Pollio with a smile.
"How do they know? Wasn't my plan supposed to be secret?" answered Caesar.
"Everyone has known this for months. The Gallic legions that came here some time ago go around telling everyone that sooner or later they must attack and take other land in Italy and that is why Pompey's men know about it," said Asinius Pollio.
"Is the area teeming with Pompey's spies?" Caesar asked loudly.
"Yes and you should be more cautious about revealing promises and plans to your troops, Caesar," Asinius Pollio added jeering a little, since he was Caesar's very good friend and could afford to.
"To hell with secrets. How much time would we have if we decided to take Rimini by surprise and go to the Marches, General Hortensius?" asked Caesar.
"All winter Caesar. They are Roman soldiers like us and are not used to fighting in the winter, but they could start strengthening the defenses and the territory. So in my opinion, if we want to attack the Rubicon, I would act right now," replied Hortensius.
"Calm down. Who is commanding Pompey's legions, now, beyond the Rubicon?" asked Caesar.
"Commander Titanus."
I know him. As his name suggests, he is a giant, a Catonian52 who is very loyal to the republic but unwilling to go to war," smiled Caesar.
"I know him too, he is a good soldier who prefers negotiation and doesn't take much pleasure in sending his men to be massacred for nothing. I add, if I could meet him to talk about a truce or an agreement," asked General Labienus.
"Veto53 . I have no intention of giving Pompey the advantage of negotiating or believing that we are afraid to attack him," Caesar answered firmly.
"Instead, I have a plan to dismantle the defenses and take Rimini by surprise. I ask permission to discuss it now," said Mark Anthony.
"Licit"54 replied Caesar.
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