2.1В Classification ofВ scientific studies
The form ofВ existence and development ofВ science is scientific research. The Federal Law ofВ the Russian Federation ofВ August 23, 1996В В«On Science and State Scientific and Technical PolicyВ» defines research activities as activities aimed at obtaining and applying new knowledge.
The purpose ofВ scientific research is the definition ofВ aВ specific object and aВ comprehensive, reliable study ofВ its structure, characteristics, relationships based on the principles and methods ofВ cognition developed inВ science, as well as obtaining results useful for human activity, introduction into production with aВ further effect. The object ofВ scientific research is aВ material or ideal system, and the subject is the structure ofВ the system, the interaction ofВ its elements, various properties, patterns ofВ development.
The results ofВ scientific research are evaluated the higher, the higher the scientific nature ofВ the conclusions and generalizations made, the more reliable and effective they are. They should form the basis for new scientific developments.
One ofВ the most important requirements for scientific research is aВ scientific generalization, which will allow establishing the dependence and connection between the phenomena and processes under study and drawing scientific conclusions. The deeper the findings, the higher the scientific level ofВ the study.
Scientific research is classified on various grounds. For example, the Federal Law «On Science and State Science and Technology Policy» distinguishes between fundamental and applied research. Fundamental scientific research is understood as experimental or theoretical activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic laws of the structure, functioning and development of a person, society, and the natural environment. Applied scientific research is defined as research aimed primarily at applying new knowledge to achieve practical goals and solve specific problems. According to the source of funding, scientific research is budgetary, contractual and unfunded. Budget research is financed from the budget of the Russian Federation or the budgets of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Contractual research is financed by organizations – customers under economic contracts. Unfunded research can be carried out at the initiative of a scientist, an individual plan of a teacher.
ByВ duration, scientific research can be divided into long-term, short-term and express research.
InВ science, one can single out empirical and theoretical levels ofВ research and organization ofВ knowledge. The theoretical level ofВ scientific knowledge presupposes the presence ofВ special abstract objects (constructs) and the theoretical laws connecting them, created for the purpose ofВ an idealized description and explanation ofВ empirical situations, i.e. for the purpose ofВ understanding the essence ofВ phenomena.
Their goal is toВ expand the knowledge ofВ society and help toВ better understand the laws ofВ nature. Such developments are used mainly for the further development ofВ new theoretical studies, which can be long-term, budgetary,В etc.
The elements ofВ empirical knowledge are facts obtained through observations and experiments and stating the qualitative and quantitative characteristics ofВ objects and phenomena. Stable repeatability and relationships between empirical characteristics are expressed using empirical laws, often ofВ aВ probabilistic nature.
So, the theoretical level ofВ research is characterized byВ the predominance ofВ logical methods ofВ cognition. At this level, the facts obtained are investigated, processed with the help ofВ logical concepts, inferences, laws and other forms ofВ thinking. Here, the objects under study are mentally analyzed, generalized, their essence, internal connections, laws ofВ development are comprehended. At this level, sensory cognition (empiricism) may be present, but it is subordinate. The structural components ofВ theoretical knowledge are the problem, hypothesis and theory. AВ problem is understood as aВ complex theoretical or practical task, the methods ofВ solving which are unknown or not fully known.
AВ hypothesis is an assumption that requires verification and proof about the cause that causes aВ certain effect, about the structure ofВ the objects under study and the nature ofВ internal and external relations ofВ structural elements. AВ hypothesis is scientific only if it is supported byВ the facts and it can exist only as long as it does not contradict the reliable facts ofВ experience, otherwise it becomes just aВ fiction. The hypothesis is verified byВ the corresponding facts ofВ experience, especially byВ experiment, obtaining the character ofВ truth.
So the scientific hypothesismust meet the following requirements:
– relevance, i.e. relevance to the facts on which it relies;
– verifiability empirically (with the exception of unverifiable hypotheses);
– compatibility with existing scientific knowledge;
– possessing explanatory power, i.e. a certain number of facts, consequences, confirming it, should be derived from the hypothesis.
– the hypothesis from which the largest number of facts is derived will have greater explanatory power;
– simplicity, i.e. it should not contain any arbitrary assumptions, subjectivist accretions.
The facts ofВ experience inВ some limited scientific field, together with realized, rigorously proven hypotheses, form aВ theory. Theory is an integral system ofВ reliable knowledge. It is the highest form ofВ generalization and systematization ofВ knowledge.
Theory is a doctrine of generalized experience (practice), formulating scientific principles and methods that allow you to generalize and understand existing processes and phenomena, analyze the effect of various factors on them and offer recommendations for using them in people’s practical activities. The theory not only describes the totality of facts, but also explains them, i.e. reveals the origin and development of phenomena and processes, their internal and external connections, causal and other dependencies. All the provisions and conclusions contained in the theory are substantiated and proven.
The structure ofВ the theory is formed byВ concepts, judgments, laws, scientific positions, teachings, ideas and other elements.
Concept is aВ thought that reflects the essential and necessary features ofВ aВ certain set ofВ objects or phenomena.
Category is aВ general, fundamental concept that reflects the most essential properties and relationships ofВ objects and phenomena. Categories are philosophical, general scientific and related toВ aВ particular branch ofВ science. Examples ofВ categories inВ economic sciences: price, finance, credit.
AВ scientific term is aВ word or combination ofВ words denoting aВ concept used inВ science. The set ofВ concepts (terms) that are used inВ aВ particular science forms its conceptual apparatus.
AВ judgment is aВ thought that affirms or denies something.
A principle is a similar position of any branch of science. They are the initial form of systematization of knowledge (the axioms of Euclidean geometry, Bohr’s postulate in quantum mechanics, etc.).
An axiom is aВ position that is initial, unprovable, and from which, according toВ established rules, other provisions are derived. Logical axioms are, for example, the law ofВ identity, the law ofВ contradiction, the law ofВ exclusion ofВ the third.
Law – a provision expressing the general course of things in any area; a statement about how something is necessary or happens to be necessary. Laws are objective and express the most significant, stable, causal connections and relationships between phenomena and processes. Laws can be classified on various grounds. So, according to the main spheres of reality, one can single out the laws of nature, society, thinking and cognition; according to the scope of action – universal, general and private.
AВ scientific law is knowledge formulated byВ people inВ concepts, which, however, has its basis inВ nature, the objective world.
AВ position is aВ scientific statement, aВ formulated thought.
Doctrine – a set of theoretical provisions about any area of phenomena of reality. For example,
IdeaВ is:
1) aВ new intuitive explanation ofВ an event or phenomenon;
2) the defining pivotal position inВ the theory.
AВ concept is aВ system ofВ theoretical views united byВ aВ scientific idea (scientific ideas); the basic idea.
The empirical level ofВ research is characterized byВ the predominance ofВ sensory cognition (the study ofВ the external world through the senses). At this level, forms ofВ theoretical knowledge are present, but have aВ subordinate significance.
The interaction ofВ the empirical and theoretical levels ofВ research is that:
1) the totality ofВ facts constitutes the practical basis ofВ the theory or hypothesis;
2) facts can confirm the theory or refuteВ it;
3) aВ scientific fact is always permeated with theory, since it cannot be formulated without aВ system ofВ concepts, interpreted without theoretical ideas;
4) empirical research inВ modern science is predetermined, guided byВ theory.
The formation of the theoretical level of science leads to a qualitative change in the empirical level. If before the theory was formed, the empirical material that served as its prerequisite was obtained on the basis of everyday experience and natural language, then when it reaches the theoretical level, it is «seen» through the prism of the meaning of theoretical concepts that begin to guide the setting up of experiments and observations – the main methods of empirical research.
The structure ofВ the empirical level ofВ research is made up ofВ facts, empirical generalizations and laws (dependencies).
The concept ofВ В«factВ» is used inВ several meanings:
– an objective event, a result related to objective reality (the fact of reality) or to the sphere of consciousness and cognition (the fact of consciousness);
– knowledge about any event, phenomenon, the reliability of which is proven (truth);
– a sentence that captures knowledge obtained in the course of observations and experiments.
An empirical generalization is aВ system ofВ certain scientific facts, on the basis ofВ which certain conclusions can be drawn or shortcomings and errors can be identified. Empirical laws reflect regularity inВ phenomena, stability inВ relationships between observed phenomena. These laws are not theoretical knowledge. Unlike theoretical laws, which reveal the essential connections ofВ reality, empirical laws reflect aВ more superficial level ofВ dependencies. For the success ofВ scientific research, it must be properly organized, planned and carried out inВ aВ certain sequence (research procedure).
These plans and the sequence of actions depend on the type, object and goals of scientific research. So, if it is carried out on technical topics, then the main pre-planning document is first developed – a feasibility study, and then theoretical and experimental studies are carried out, a scientific and technical report is drawn up and the results of the work are introduced into production.
With regard toВ the work ofВ students, the following successive stages ofВ implementation can be outlined:
1. Preparatory;
2. Conducting theoretical and empirical research;
3. Work on the manuscript and its design;
4. Implementation ofВ the results ofВ scientific research.
It seems necessary toВ first give aВ general description ofВ each stage ofВ the research work, and then consider inВ more detail those ofВ them that are important for the implementation ofВ scientific research byВ students. Figure 2В shows aВ diagram ofВ the stages ofВ scientific research.
The preparatory stage includes: choice ofВ topic; substantiation ofВ the need toВ conduct research on it; definition ofВ hypotheses, goals and objectives ofВ the study; development ofВ aВ plan or program ofВ scientific research; preparation ofВ research tools (tools). First, the topic ofВ scientific research is formulated and the reasons for its development are substantiated. ByВ preliminary acquaintance with the literature and materials ofВ previous studies, it becomes clear toВ what extent the issues ofВ the topic have been studied and what are the results obtained. Particular attention should be paid toВ questions toВ which there are no answers at all or they are insufficient.
AВ list ofВ normative acts, domestic and foreign literature, aВ card index ofВ published judicial practice is compiled. AВ research methodology is being developed. Research tools are being prepared inВ the form ofВ questionnaires, questionnaires, interview forms, observation programs, etc. Pilot studies can be carried out toВ check their suitability.
The research stage consists ofВ aВ systematic study ofВ literature on the topic, statistical information and archival materials; conducting theoretical and empirical research, including the collection, processing, generalization and analysis ofВ the data obtained; explanations ofВ new scientific facts, argumentation and formulation ofВ provisions, conclusions and practical recommendations and proposals.
The third stage includes: determination ofВ the composition (construction, internal structure) ofВ the work; clarification ofВ the title, titles ofВ chapters and paragraphs; preparation ofВ aВ draft manuscript and its editing; text design, including aВ list ofВ references and applications.
The fourth stage consists of the implementation of the research results into practice and the author’s support of the implemented developments. Scientific research does not always end at this stage, but sometimes students’ scientific works (for example, theses) are recommended for implementation in the practical activities of law enforcement agencies and in the educational process.
3.В Methodological bases ofВ scientific knowledge
3.1. Research Methodology
Methodology inВ the broad sense ofВ the word is aВ system ofВ principles and methods for organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine ofВ this system. There is another definition ofВ methodology as В«the doctrine ofВ the method ofВ scientific knowledgeВ and
transformation ofВ the world.В» The methodology ofВ science characterizes the components ofВ scientific research, its object, subject, tasks, the totality ofВ means necessary toВ solve research problems, and also forms an idea ofВ the sequence ofВ actions ofВ the researcher inВ the process ofВ solving the problem.
InВ modern literature, methodology is primarily an object, subject, aВ set ofВ tools necessary toВ solve research problems; methodology also forms an idea ofВ the sequence ofВ actions ofВ the researcherВ in
problem solving process. Methodological knowledge can act either inВ aВ descriptive form or inВ aВ normative one, i.e. inВ the form ofВ direct instructions and instructions for activity.
InВ this form, the methodology is directly aimed at the implementation ofВ activities.
There are 4В levels ofВ methodology:
1. Philosophical methodology – general principles of knowledge.
2. General scientific methodology (substantial general scientific concepts that affect a fairly large number of scientific disciplines – a systematic approach, a cybernetic approach, etc.).
3. Specific scientific methodology (aВ set ofВ methods, principles ofВ research and procedures used inВ aВ particular scientific discipline).
4. The methodology of this particular study – the methodology and technique of the study, a set of procedures that ensure the receipt of empirical material, its primary processing.
Method, or otherwise, the path ofВ research is aВ way toВ achieve aВ specific goal, aВ set ofВ techniques and operations ofВ practical or theoretical exploration ofВ reality. InВ the field ofВ science, the method is the path ofВ knowledge that the researcher paves toВ his subject. Thus, the method ofВ scientific research is aВ way ofВ knowing objective reality.
The methods ofВ the empirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling,В etc.
The methods ofВ the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy) and others.
AВ method is an action or aВ system ofВ actions used inВ the performance ofВ some work, inВ the implementation ofВ something.
Methodology can be defined as aВ set ofВ methods and techniques ofВ cognition. Any scientific research is carried out byВ certain methods and methods, according toВ certain rules.
3.2. General scientific and philosophical methodology. Essence, general principles
Among philosophical methods, the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. For Hegel, dialectics is В«the use inВ science ofВ the regularity contained inВ the nature ofВ thinking, and at the same time this regularity itself.В» Dialectic is the movement that underlies everything. For Marxist dialectical materialism, dialectics is, first ofВ all, the internal law ofВ economic development and, since everything else depends on it, the law ofВ everything that happens inВ general. When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles:
1. Consider the objects under study inВ the light ofВ dialectical laws:
a) unity and struggle ofВ opposites;
b) the transition ofВ quantitative changes into qualitative ones;
c) negation ofВ negation;
2. Describe, explain and predict the phenomena and processes under study, based on philosophical categories: general, particular and singular; content and form; entities and phenomena; possibilities and reality; necessary and accidental; cause and effect.
3. Treat the object ofВ study as an objective reality.
4. Consider the objects and phenomena under study:
a) comprehensively;
b) inВ universal connection and interdependence;
c) inВ continuous change, development;
d) concretely-historically.
